. Feminism is a range of, and that share a common goal: to define, establish, and achieve political, economic, personal, and social equality of sexes. This includes seeking to establish educational and professional opportunities for women that are equal to those for men. Have campaigned and continue to campaign for, including the right to, to hold public office, to earn fair or, to, to enter contracts, to have equal rights within, and to have. Feminists have also worked to ensure access to legal abortions and, and to protect women and girls from, and. Changes in dress and acceptable physical activity have often been part of feminist movements. Feminist campaigns are generally considered to be a main force behind major historical for, particularly in, where they are near-universally credited with achieving, for women (including access to and ), and the right to enter into contracts and.

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Although feminist advocacy is, and has been, mainly focused on women's rights, some feminists, including, argue for the inclusion of within its aims because they believe that men are also harmed by traditional., which emerged from feminist movements, aims to understand the nature of gender inequality by examining women's social roles and lived experience; it has developed theories in a variety of disciplines in order to respond to issues concerning gender. Numerous feminist movements and ideologies have developed over the years and represent different viewpoints and aims. Some forms of feminism have been for taking into account only white, middle class, and college-educated perspectives. This criticism led to the creation of ethnically specific or forms of feminism, including and. Along with other Parisian in 1935. The newspaper headline reads 'The Frenchwoman Must Vote.' First-wave feminism was a period of activity during the 19th century and early twentieth century.

In the UK and eventually the US, it focused on the promotion of equal contract, marriage, parenting, and property rights for women. By the end of the 19th century, a number of important steps had been made with the passing of legislation such as the UK which introduced the for child custody arrangement and gave woman the right of custody of their children for the first time. Other legislation such as the in the UK and extended in the, these became models for similar legislation in other British territories. For example, passed legislation in 1884, in 1889, and the remaining Australian colonies passed similar legislation between 1890 and 1897. Therefore, with the turn of the 19th century activism had focused primarily on gaining political power, particularly the right of women's, though some feminists were active in campaigning for women's, and as well. Women's suffrage began in Britain's colonies at the close of the 19th century, with the self-governing colonies of granting women the in 1893 and South Australia granting female suffrage (the right to vote and stand for parliamentary office) in 1895. This was followed by Australia granting female suffrage in 1902.

In the Suffragettes and the campaigned for the women's vote, and in 1918 the was passed granting the vote to women over the age of 30 who owned property. In 1928 this was extended to all women over 21. Was the most notable activist in England, with naming her one of the stating: 'she shaped an idea of women for our time; she shook society into a new pattern from which there could be no going back.' In the U.S., notable leaders of this movement included, and, who each campaigned for the prior to championing women's right to vote. These women were influenced by the theology of spiritual equality, which asserts that men and women are equal under God. In the United States, first-wave feminism is considered to have ended with the passage of the (1919), granting women the right to vote in all states.

The term first wave was coined retroactively to categorize these western movements after the term second-wave feminism began to be used to describe a newer feminist movement that focused on fighting social and cultural inequalities, as well political inequalities. During the late and reform movements such as the, called for women's liberation from traditional roles and. Later, the created projects aimed at integrating women into the workforce, and claimed that the revolution had successfully achieved women's liberation. According to Nawar al-Hassan Golley, Arab feminism was closely connected with. In 1899, considered the 'father' of Arab feminism, wrote The Liberation of Women, which argued for legal and social reforms for women. He drew links between women's position in Egyptian society and nationalism, leading to the development of Cairo University and the National Movement.

In 1923 founded the, became its president and a symbol of the Arab women's rights movement. The in 1905 triggered the, which aimed to achieve women's equality in, marriage, careers, and. However, during the of 1979, many of the rights that had gained from the women's movement were systematically abolished, such as the.

In, women obtained the only with the of 21 April 1944. The Consultative Assembly of Algiers of 1944 proposed on 24 March 1944 to grant eligibility to women but following an amendment by, they were given full citizenship, including the right to vote. Grenier's proposition was adopted 51 to 16. In May 1947, following the, the sociologist Robert Verdier minimized the ', stating in that women had not voted in a consistent way, dividing themselves, as men, according to social classes. During the period, feminism waned in importance. Wars (both World War I and World War II) had seen the provisional emancipation of some women, but post-war periods signalled the return to conservative roles. Mid-twentieth century By the mid 20th century, in some European countries, women still lacked some significant rights.

Feminists in these countries continued to fight for voting rights. In, women gained the in federal in 1971; but in the canton of women obtained the right to vote on local issues only in 1991, when the canton was forced to do so by the. In, women were given the right to vote by the. Three prior referendums held in, and had failed to secure women's right to vote.

Feminist, author and social activist (b. Is traced to the emergence of the feminist in, in the early 1990s, and to 's televised testimony in 1991—to an all-male, all-white —that, nominated for the, had her. The term third wave is credited to, who responded to Thomas's appointment to the Supreme Court with an article in magazine, 'Becoming the Third Wave' (1992). She wrote: So I write this as a plea to all women, especially women of my generation: Let Thomas’ confirmation serve to remind you, as it did me, that the fight is far from over. Let this dismissal of a woman's experience move you to anger. Turn that outrage into political power. Do not vote for them unless they work for us.

Do not have sex with them, do not break bread with them, do not nurture them if they don't prioritize our freedom to control our bodies and our lives. I am not a post-feminism feminist. I am the Third Wave. Third-wave feminism also sought to challenge or avoid what it deemed the second wave's definitions of, which, third-wave feminists argued, over-emphasized the experiences of upper middle-class white women. Third-wave feminists often focused on ' and challenged the second wave's paradigm as to what was, or was not, good for women, and tended to use a interpretation of gender and sexuality. Feminist leaders rooted in the second wave, such as, and many other non-white feminists, sought to negotiate a space within feminist thought for consideration of race-related subjectivities. Third-wave feminism also contained internal debates between, who believe that there are important psychological differences between the sexes, and those who believe that there are no inherent psychological differences between the sexes and contend that gender roles are due to.

Standpoint theory Standpoint theory is a feminist theoretical point of view that believes a persons' social position influences their knowledge. This perspective argues that research and theory treats women and the feminist movement as insignificant and refuses to see traditional science as unbiased.

Since the 1980s, have argued that the feminist movement should address (such as rape, and prostitution) and culturally specific issues (such as in some parts of and, as well as practices that impede women's advancement in developed economies) in order to understand how gender inequality interacts with racism, and in a '. Fourth-wave feminism. Main article: refers to a resurgence of interest in feminism that began around 2012 and is associated with the use of. According to feminist scholar Prudence Chamberlain, the focus of the fourth wave is justice for women and opposition to and. Its essence, she writes, is 'incredulity that certain attitudes can still exist'.

Fourth-wave feminism is 'defined by technology', according to, and is characterized particularly by the use of, and blogs such as to challenge and further. Issues that fourth-wave feminists focus on include and, and.

Scandals involving the harassment, abuse, and murder of women and girls have galvanized the movement. These have included the 2012, 2012, the, 2014, 2016, 2017 and subsequent, and the 2017. Examples of fourth-wave feminist campaigns include the, the, the, and the movement. In December 2017, magazine chose several prominent female activists involved in the #MeToo movement, dubbed 'the silence breakers', as. Post-feminism The term is used to describe a range of viewpoints reacting to feminism since the 1980s.

While not being 'anti-feminist', post-feminists believe that women have achieved second wave goals while being critical of third wave feminist goals. The term was first used to describe a backlash against second-wave feminism, but it is now a label for a wide range of theories that take critical approaches to previous feminist discourses and includes challenges to the second wave's ideas. Other post-feminists say that feminism is no longer relevant to today's society. Has written that the post-feminist texts which emerged in the 1980s and 1990s portrayed second-wave feminism as a monolithic entity. Dorothy Chunn notes a 'blaming narrative' under the post-feminist moniker, where feminists are undermined for continuing to make demands for in a 'post-feminist' society, where 'gender equality has (already) been achieved.' According to Chunn, 'many feminists have voiced disquiet about the ways in which rights and equality discourses are now used against them.'

See also: and Feminist theory is the extension of feminism into theoretical or philosophical fields. It encompasses work in a variety of disciplines, including, and.

Feminist theory aims to understand and focuses on gender politics, power relations, and sexuality. While providing a critique of these social and political relations, much of feminist theory also focuses on the promotion of women's rights and interests. Themes explored in feminist theory include discrimination, (especially ), and. In the field of, describes the development of feminist theory as having three phases.

The first she calls 'feminist critique', in which the feminist reader examines the ideologies behind literary phenomena. The second Showalter calls ', in which the 'woman is producer of textual meaning'. The last phase she calls 'gender theory', in which the 'ideological inscription and the literary effects of the sex/gender system are explored'. This was paralleled in the 1970s by, who developed the concept of (which translates as 'female or feminine writing'). Argues that writing and philosophy are and along with other French feminists such as emphasize 'writing from the body' as a subversive exercise. The work of, a feminist psychoanalyst and philosopher, and, artist and psychoanalyst, has influenced feminist theory in general and in particular. However, as the scholar Elizabeth Wright points out, 'none of these French feminists align themselves with the feminist movement as it appeared in the world'.

More recent feminist theory, such as that of Lisa Lucile Owens, has concentrated on characterizing feminism as a universal emancipatory movement. Movements and ideologies. A symbol of feminism based on the Many overlapping feminist movements and ideologies have developed over the years. Political movements Some branches of feminism closely track the political leanings of the larger society, such as liberalism and conservatism, or focus on the environment. Seeks individualistic equality of men and women through political and legal reform without altering the structure of society. Catherine Rottenberg has argued that the neoliberal shirt in Liberal feminism has led to that form of feminism being individualized rather than collectivized and becoming detached from social inequality. Due to this she argues that Liberal Feminism cannot offer any sustained analysis of the structures of male dominance, power, or privilege.

Considers the male-controlled capitalist hierarchy as the defining feature of women's oppression and the total uprooting and reconstruction of society as necessary. Is conservative relative to the society in which it resides.

Conceives of people as self-owners and therefore as entitled to freedom from coercive interference. Does not support heterosexual relationships. Lesbian feminism is thus closely related. Other feminists criticize separatist feminism as sexist. See men's control of land as responsible for the oppression of women and destruction of the; ecofeminism has been criticized for focusing too much on a mystical connection between women and nature. Materialist ideologies and Chrys Ingraham say that materialist forms of feminism grew out of Western Marxist thought and have inspired a number of different (but overlapping) movements, all of which are involved in a critique of capitalism and are focused on ideology's relationship to women. Argues that capitalism is the root cause of women's oppression, and that discrimination against women in domestic life and employment is an effect of capitalist ideologies.

Distinguishes itself from Marxist feminism by arguing that women's liberation can only be achieved by working to end both the economic and cultural sources of women's oppression. Believe that and against the require struggling against patriarchy, which comes from involuntary hierarchy. Black and postcolonial ideologies argues that and feminisms pose a challenge 'to some of the organizing premises of Western feminist thought.' During much of its, feminist movements and were led predominantly by middle-class white women from Western Europe and North America. However women of other races have proposed alternative feminisms.

This trend accelerated in the 1960s with the civil rights movement in the United States and the collapse of European colonialism in Africa, the Caribbean, parts of Latin America, and Southeast Asia. Since that time, women in and and who are of colour or various ethnicities or living in poverty have proposed additional feminisms. Emerged after early feminist movements were largely white and middle-class. Postcolonial feminists argue that colonial oppression and Western feminism marginalized postcolonial women but did not turn them passive or voiceless. And are closely related to postcolonial feminism.

These ideas also correspond with ideas in African feminism, motherism, Stiwanism, negofeminism, femalism, and. Social constructionist ideologies.

Main article: In the late twentieth century various feminists began to argue that gender roles are, and that it is impossible to generalize women's experiences across cultures and histories. Draws on the philosophies of and in order to argue that the concept of gender is created socially and culturally through.

Also emphasize the social construction of gender and the discursive nature of reality; however, as et al. Note, a postmodern approach to feminism highlights 'the existence of multiple truths (rather than simply men and women's standpoints)'. Transgender people. Main article: Feminist views on transgender people differ. Some feminists do not view as women, believing that they have due to their at birth. Additionally, some feminists reject 'transgenderism' due to views that all behavioral differences between genders are a result of.

In contrast, believe that the liberation of trans women is a necessary part of feminist goals. Are overall more supportive of trans rights. A key concept in transfeminism is of, which is the irrational fear of, aversion to, or discrimination against transgender women or feminine gender non conformers. Cultural movements took an stance of and. Riot grrrl's emphasis on universal female identity and separatism often appears more closely allied with second-wave feminism than with the third wave.

The movement encouraged and made 'adolescent girls' standpoints central', allowing them to express themselves fully. Is a cultural feminist movement that attempts to respond to the backlash of second-wave radical feminism of the 1960s and 1970s by reclaiming symbols of 'feminine' identity such as make-up, suggestive clothing and having a sexual allure as valid and empowering personal choices. Demographics According to 2015 poll, 18 percent of Americans consider themselves feminists, while 85 percent reported they believe in 'equality for women'. Despite the popular belief in equal rights, 52 percent did not identify as feminist, 26 percent were unsure, and four percent provided no response.

According to 2014 poll covering 15 developed countries, 53 percent of respondents identified as feminists, and 87% agreed that 'women should be treated equally to men in all areas based on their competency, not their gender'. However, only 55% of women agreed that they have 'full equality with men and the freedom to reach their full dreams and aspirations'. Among women, some of the strongest support for feminism was found in Sweden, where one in three (36%) agreed very much that they defined themselves as feminists.

They were followed by women in Italy (31%) and Argentina (29%). Those in the middle of the ranking were from Great Britain (22%), Spain (22%), United States (20%), Australia (18%), Belgium (18%), France (18%), Canada (17%), Poland (17%), and Hungary (15%). Women least likely to agree very much were from Japan (8%), Germany (7%) and South Korea (7%).

One quarter of men in Italy (25%) and Argentina (25%), and two in ten of those in Poland (21%) and France (19%), agreed very much they defined themselves as feminist. They were followed by those from Sweden (17%), Spain (16%), the United States (16%), Canada (15%), Great Britain (14%), Hungary (12%), Belgium (11%) and Australia (10%). Men least likely to identify this way were from South Korea (7%), Germany (3%) and Japan (3%). Women were more likely to self-identify as being feminists than men in every country except Poland, where men (21%) were four points more likely than women (17%) to agree very much with the statement. In South Korea, there was no difference between men and women (7%) on this measure.

Main article: vary, and have differed by historical period and by cultural context. Feminist attitudes to female sexuality have taken a few different directions. Matters such as the, sexual representation in the media, and issues regarding consent to sex under conditions of male dominance have been particularly controversial among feminists. This debate has culminated in the late 1970s and the 1980s, in what came to be known as the, which pitted against, and parts of the feminist movement were deeply divided by these debates. Feminists have taken a variety of positions on different aspects of the from the 1960s and 70s. Over the course of the 1970s, a large number of influential women accepted lesbian and as part of feminism.

Sex industry. Main articles:, and Opinions on the sex industry are diverse. Feminists critical of the sex industry generally see it as the exploitative result of patriarchal social structures which reinforce sexual and cultural attitudes complicit in rape and sexual harassment. Alternately, feminists who support at least part of the sex industry argue that it can be a medium of feminist expression and a means for women to take control of their sexuality.

Feminist views of pornography range from condemnation of pornography as a form of, to an embracing of some forms of pornography as a medium of feminist expression. Similarly, feminists' views on prostitution vary, ranging from critical to supportive. Affirming female sexual autonomy For feminists, a woman's right to control her own is a key issue.

Feminists such as argue that women have very little control over their own bodies, with female sexuality being largely controlled and defined by men in patriarchal societies. Feminists argue that sexual violence committed by men is often rooted in ideologies of male sexual entitlement, and that these systems grant women very few legitimate options to refuse sexual advances. In many cultures, men do not believe that a woman has the right to reject a man's sexual advances or to make an autonomous decision about participating in sex. Feminists argue that all cultures are, in one way or another, dominated by ideologies that largely deny women the right to decide how to express their sexuality, because men under patriarchy feel entitled to define sex on their own terms. This entitlement can take different forms, depending on the culture. In many parts of the world, especially in and religious cultures, marriage is regarded as an institution which requires a wife to be sexually available at all times, virtually without limit; thus, forcing or coercing sex on a wife is not considered a crime or even an abusive behaviour. In more liberal cultures, this entitlement takes the form of a general of the whole culture.

This is played out in the of women, with pornography and other forms of sexual entertainment creating the fantasy that all women exist solely for men's sexual pleasure, and that women are readily available and desiring to engage in sex at any time, with any man, on a man's terms. Further information: says that the 'moral and political insights of the women's movement have inspired social scientists and biologists to raise critical questions about the ways traditional researchers have explained gender, sex and relations within and between the social and natural worlds.' Some feminists, such as and, criticize traditional as being historically biased towards a male perspective. A part of the feminist research agenda is the examination of the ways in which power inequities are created or reinforced in scientific and academic institutions.

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Physicist, appointed to a task force at Harvard by then-president after his controversial discussion of why women may be underrepresented in science and engineering, said, 'I just want to see a whole bunch more women enter the field so these issues don't have to come up anymore.' Lynn Hankinson Nelson notes that feminist empiricists find fundamental differences between the experiences of men and women.

Thus, they seek to obtain knowledge through the examination of the experiences of women, and to 'uncover the consequences of omitting, misdescribing, or devaluing them' to account for a range of human experience. Another part of the feminist research agenda is the uncovering of ways in which power inequities are created or reinforced in society and in scientific and academic institutions. Furthermore, despite calls for greater attention to be paid to structures of gender inequity in the academic literature, structural analyses of gender bias rarely appear in highly cited psychological journals, especially in the commonly studied areas of psychology and personality. One criticism of feminist epistemology is that it allows social and political values to influence its findings. Also points out that feminist epistemology reinforces traditional stereotypes about women's thinking (as intuitive and emotional, etc.); further cautions that this may in fact trap women within 'traditional gender roles and help justify patriarchy'. Biology and gender.

Further information: and Modern feminism challenges the essentialist view of as biologically intrinsic. For example, 's book, Myths of Gender, explores the assumptions embodied in research that support a biologically view of gender.

In, disputes scientific evidence that suggests that there is an innate biological difference between men's and women's minds, asserting instead that cultural and societal beliefs are the reason for differences between individuals that are commonly perceived as sex differences. Feminist psychology. Main article: Architecture Gender-based inquiries into and conceptualization of architecture have also come about, leading to. Piyush Mathur coined the term 'archigenderic'. Claiming that 'architectural planning has an inextricable link with the defining and regulation of gender roles, responsibilities, rights, and limitations', Mathur came up with that term 'to explore. The meaning of 'architecture' in terms of gender' and 'to explore the meaning of 'gender' in terms of architecture'. Businesses Feminist activists have established a range of, including women's bookstores, feminist credit unions, feminist presses, feminist mail-order catalogs, and feminist restaurants.

These businesses flourished as part of the and of feminism in the 1970s, 1980s, and 1990s. Main article: Corresponding with general developments within feminism, and often including such self-organizing tactics as the consciousness-raising group, the movement began in the 1960s and flourished throughout the 1970s. Jeremy Strick, director of the, described the feminist art movement as 'the most influential international movement of any during the postwar period', and says that it 'brought about the most far-reaching transformations in both artmaking and art writing over the past four decades'.

Feminist artist, who created, a set of in the 1970s, said in 2009 to, 'There is still an institutional lag and an insistence on a male narrative. We are trying to change the future: to get girls and boys to realize that women's art is not an exception—it's a normal part of art history.' A feminist approach to the visual arts has most recently developed through and the turn, giving voice to the ways 'contemporary female artists are dealing with gender, social media and the notion of embodiment'. See also:, and The feminist movement produced both feminist fiction and non-fiction, and created new interest in. It also prompted a general reevaluation of women's and academic contributions in response to the belief that women's lives and contributions have been underrepresented as areas of scholarly interest. Much of the early period of feminist literary scholarship was given over to the rediscovery and reclamation of texts written by women.

Studies like 's Mothers of the Novel (1986) and Jane Spencer's The Rise of the Woman Novelist (1986) were ground-breaking in their insistence that women have always been writing. Commensurate with this growth in scholarly interest, various presses began the task of reissuing long-out-of-print texts. Began to publish its large list of 19th and early-20th-century novels in 1975 and became one of the first commercial presses to join in the project of reclamation. In the 1980s Pandora Press, responsible for publishing Spender's study, issued a companion line of 18th-century novels written by women.

More recently, continues to issue 18th- and 19th-century novels, many hitherto out of print, and the has a series of republications of early women's novels. (1792) by, is one of the earliest works of feminist philosophy.

(1929) by, is noted in its argument for both a literal and figural space for women writers within a literary tradition dominated by patriarchy. The widespread interest in women's writing is related to a general reassessment and expansion of the. Interest in, writing by people of colour, working people's writing, and the cultural productions of other historically marginalized groups has resulted in a whole scale expansion of what is considered 'literature', and genres hitherto not regarded as 'literary', such as children's writing, journals, letters, travel writing, and many others are now the subjects of scholarly interest. Most have undergone a similar analysis, so that one now sees work on the '. According to Elyce Rae Helford, 'Science fiction and fantasy serve as important vehicles for feminist thought, particularly as bridges between theory and practice.' Feminist science fiction is sometimes taught at the university level to explore the role of social constructs in understanding gender.

Notable texts of this kind are 's (1969), ' (1970), 's (1979) and 's (1985). American jazz singer and songwriter in New York City in 1947 (or womyn's music or wimmin's music) is the music by, for women, and about women. The genre emerged as a musical expression of the second-wave feminist movement as well as the, and. The movement was started by lesbians such as, and, African-American women activists such as and her group, and peace activist. Women's music also refers to the wider industry of women's music that goes beyond the performing artists to include, cover artists, distributors, and festival organizers who are also women.

Is an feminist movement described in the section of this article. Feminism became a principal concern of in the 1980s as part of the. Prior to this, in the 1970s, musicologists were beginning to discover women composers and performers, and had begun to review concepts of, genius, genre and periodization from a feminist perspective. In other words, the question of how women musicians fit into traditional music history was now being asked.

Through the 1980s and 1990s, this trend continued as musicologists like, and Ruth Solie began to consider the cultural reasons for the marginalizing of women from the received body of work. Concepts such as music as gendered discourse; professionalism; reception of women's music; examination of the sites of music production; relative wealth and; popular music studies in relation to women's identity; patriarchal ideas in music analysis; and notions of gender and difference are among the themes examined during this time. While the has long been open to having women in performance or entertainment roles, women are much less likely to have positions of authority, such as being the. In popular music, while there are many women singers recording songs, there are very few women behind the acting as, the individuals who direct and manage the recording process.

See also: Feminist cinema, advocating or illustrating feminist perspectives, arose largely with the development of in the late '60s and early '70s. Women who were radicalized during the 1960s by political debate and sexual liberation; but the failure of radicalism to produce substantive change for women galvanized them to form consciousness-raising groups and set about analysing, from different perspectives, dominant cinema's construction of women.

Differences were particularly marked between. 1972 saw the first feminist film festivals in the U.S. As well as the first feminist film journal, Trailblazers from this period included and, who also organized the Women's Event at the.

Other theorists making a powerful impact on feminist film include, Anneke Smelik and. Approaches in philosophy and psychoanalysis fuelled feminist film criticism, feminist independent film and feminist distribution. It has been argued that there are two distinct approaches to independent, theoretically inspired feminist filmmaking. 'Deconstruction' concerns itself with analysing and breaking down codes of mainstream cinema, aiming to create a different relationship between the spectator and dominant cinema. The second approach, a feminist counterculture, embodies feminine writing to investigate a specifically feminine cinematic language.

Some recent criticism of 'feminist film' approaches has centred around a Swedish rating system called the. During the 1930s–1950s heyday of the big Hollywood studios, the status of women in the industry was abysmal. Since then female directors such as, and have made art movies, and directors like and have had mainstream success. This progress stagnated in the 90s, and men outnumber women five to one in behind the camera roles. Chilean feminists protest against the regime of Fascism has been prescribed dubious stances on feminism by its practitioners and by women's groups. Amongst other demands concerning social reform presented in the in 1919 was expanding the suffrage to all Italian citizens of age 18 and above, including women (accomplished only in 1946, after the defeat of fascism) and eligibility for all to stand for office from age 25.

This demand was particularly championed by special Fascist women's auxiliary groups such as the fasci femminilli and only partly realized in 1925, under pressure from Prime Minister 's more conservative coalition partners. Cyprian Blamires states that although feminists were among those who opposed the rise of, feminism has a complicated relationship with the movement as well. While Nazis glorified traditional notions of patriarchal society and its role for women, they claimed to recognize women's equality in employment.

However, Hitler and Mussolini declared themselves as opposed to feminism, and after the rise of in Germany in 1933, there was a rapid dissolution of the political rights and economic opportunities that feminists had fought for during the pre-war period and to some extent during the 1920s. Georges Duby et al. Note that in practice fascist society was hierarchical and emphasized male virility, with women maintaining a largely subordinate position. Blamires also notes that Neofascism has since the 1960s been hostile towards feminism and advocates that women accept 'their traditional roles'. Civil rights movement and anti-racism The has influenced and informed the feminist movement and vice versa. Many Western feminists adapted the language and theories of black equality activism and drew parallels between women's rights and the rights of non-white people.

Despite the connections between the women's and civil rights movements, some tension arose during the late 1960s and early 1970s as non-white women argued that feminism was predominantly white and middle class, and did not understand and was not concerned with race issues. Similarly, some women argued that the civil rights movement had sexist elements and did not adequately address minority women's concerns. These criticisms created new feminist social theories about the intersections of racism, and, and new feminisms, such as and.

Neoliberalism has been criticized by feminist theory for having a negative effect on the female workforce population across the globe, especially in the global south. Non-signatory From the 1960s on, the campaign for women's rights was met with mixed results in the U.S. Other countries of the agreed to ensure that discriminatory laws would be phased out across the European Community.

Some feminist campaigning also helped reform attitudes to. The view that young girls cause men to have sexual intercourse with them was replaced by that of men's responsibility for their own conduct, the men being adults. In the U.S., the began in 1966 to seek women's equality, including through the , which did not pass, although. Centred on the court decision in enunciating a woman's right to choose whether to carry a pregnancy to term.

Western women gained more reliable, allowing family planning and careers. The movement started in the 1910s in the U.S. Under and elsewhere under. In the final three decades of the 20th century, Western women knew a new freedom through, which enabled women to plan their adult lives, often making way for both career and family. The within households was affected by the increased entry of women into workplaces in the 20th century. Sociologist found that, in two-career couples, men and women, on average, spend about equal amounts of time working, but women still spend more time on housework, although responded by arguing that women may prevent equal participation by men in housework and parenting. Brown writes, 'Women are most likely to make a substantial contribution when subsistence activities have the following characteristics: the participant is not obliged to be far from home; the tasks are relatively monotonous and do not require rapt concentration; and the work is not dangerous, can be performed in spite of interruptions, and is easily resumed once interrupted.'

In international law, the (CEDAW) is an international convention adopted by the and described as an international for women. It came into force in those nations ratifying it. Main article: Feminist jurisprudence is a branch of that examines the relationship between women and law. It addresses questions about the history of legal and social biases against women and about the enhancement of their legal rights. Feminist jurisprudence signifies a reaction to the of modern, who typically see law as a process for interpreting and perpetuating a society's universal, gender-neutral ideals.

Feminist legal scholars claim that this fails to acknowledge women's values or legal interests or the harms that they may anticipate or experience. Further information: Proponents of gender-neutral language argue that the use of gender-specific language often implies male superiority or reflects an unequal state of society. According to The Handbook of English Linguistics, generic masculine pronouns and gender-specific job titles are instances 'where English linguistic convention has historically treated men as prototypical of the human species.' Chose 'feminism' as its 2017 Word of the Year, noting that 'Word of the Year is a quantitative measure of interest in a particular word.' Adrienne Simmons speaking at the 2008 ceremony for the only women's mosque in, a symbol of progress for growing women's rights in the belt. Feminist theology is a movement that reconsiders the traditions, practices, scriptures, and theologies of religions from a feminist perspective. Some of the goals of feminist theology include increasing the role of women among the clergy and religious authorities, reinterpreting male-dominated imagery and language about God, determining women's place in relation to career and motherhood, and studying images of women in the religion's sacred texts.

Is a branch of feminist theology which seeks to interpret and understand Christianity in light of the of and men, and that this interpretation is necessary for a complete understanding of Christianity. While there is no standard set of beliefs among Christian feminists, most agree that God does not discriminate on the basis of sex, and are involved in issues such as the, male dominance and the balance of parenting in, claims of moral deficiency and inferiority of women compared to men, and the overall treatment of women in the church. The Christian in positions of authority in 4:4 and 22:14. advocate women's rights, and grounded within an Islamic framework. Advocates seek to highlight the deeply rooted teachings of equality in the and encourage a questioning of the patriarchal interpretation of Islamic teaching through the Quran, (sayings of ), and (law) towards the creation of a more equal and just society.

Although rooted in Islam, the movement's pioneers have also utilized and Western feminist discourses and recognize the role of Islamic feminism as part of an integrated global feminist movement. Is a movement that seeks to improve the religious, legal, and of. It is an aspect of which seeks to advance and understand the equality of men and women morally, socially, spiritually, and in leadership from a Buddhist perspective. The Buddhist feminist describes Buddhist feminism as 'the radical practice of the co-humanity of women and men.'

Is a movement that seeks to improve the religious, legal, and social status of within Judaism and to open up new opportunities for religious experience and leadership for Jewish women. The main issues for early Jewish feminists in these movements were the exclusion from the all-male prayer group or, the exemption from positive time-bound, and women's inability to function as witnesses and to initiate.

Many Jewish women have become leaders of feminist movements throughout their history. Is a feminist-centred. Secular or have engaged in feminist criticism of religion, arguing that many religions have oppressive rules towards women and themes and elements in religious texts. 'Female Muslims- The tsar, beys and khans took your rights away' – Soviet poster issued in, 1921 Patriarchy is a social system in which society is organized around male authority figures. In this system fathers have authority over women, children, and property. It implies the institutions of male rule and privilege, and is dependent on female subordination.

Most forms of feminism characterize patriarchy as an unjust social system that is oppressive to women. Argues that the patriarchal distinction 'between masculinity and femininity is the political difference between freedom and subjection.' In the concept of patriarchy often includes all the social mechanisms that reproduce and exert male dominance over women. Feminist theory typically characterizes patriarchy as a social construction, which can be overcome by revealing and critically analyzing its manifestations.

Some have proposed that because patriarchy is too deeply rooted in society, is the only viable solution. Other feminists have criticized these views as being anti-men. Men and masculinity. Main article: Feminist theory has explored the social construction of masculinity and its implications for the goal of gender equality.

The social construct of masculinity is seen by feminism as problematic because it associates males with aggression and competition, and reinforces patriarchal and unequal gender relations. Patriarchal cultures are criticized for 'limiting forms of masculinity' available to men and thus narrowing their life choices. Some feminists are engaged with men's issues activism, such as bringing attention to male rape and spousal battery and addressing negative social expectations for men.

Male participation in feminism is generally encouraged by feminists and is seen as an important strategy for achieving full societal commitment to gender equality. Many male feminists and are active in both women's rights activism, feminist theory, and masculinity studies. However, some argue that while male engagement with feminism is necessary, it is problematic because of the ingrained social influences of patriarchy in gender relations. The consensus today in feminist and masculinity theories is that men and women should cooperate to achieve the larger goals of feminism. It has been proposed that, in large part, this can be achieved through considerations of women's. Reactions Different groups of people have responded to feminism, and both men and women have been among its supporters and critics.

Among American university students, for both men and women, support for feminist ideas is more common than self-identification as a feminist. The US media tends to portray feminism negatively and feminists 'are less often associated with day-to-day work/leisure activities of regular women.' However, as recent research has demonstrated, as people are exposed to self-identified feminists and to discussions relating to various forms of feminism, their own self-identification with feminism increases. Main article: Pro-feminism is the support of feminism without implying that the supporter is a member of the feminist movement. The term is most often used in reference to men who are actively supportive of feminism. The activities of pro-feminist men's groups include anti-violence work with boys and young men in schools, offering sexual harassment workshops in workplaces, running community education campaigns, and counselling male perpetrators of violence.

Pro-feminist men also may be involved in men's health, activism against pornography including anti-pornography legislation, and the development of gender equity curricula in schools. This work is sometimes in collaboration with feminists and women's services, such as domestic violence and rape crisis centres. Anti-feminism and criticism of feminism. Main article: Anti-feminism is opposition to feminism in some or all of its forms.

In the nineteenth century, anti-feminism was mainly focused on opposition to women's suffrage. Later, opponents of women's entry into institutions of higher learning argued that education was too great a physical burden on women.

Other anti-feminists opposed women's entry into the labour force, or their right to join unions, to sit on juries, or to obtain birth control and control of their sexuality. Some people have opposed feminism on the grounds that they believe it is contrary to traditional values or religious beliefs. These anti-feminists argue, for example, that social acceptance of divorce and non-married women is wrong and harmful, and that men and women are fundamentally different and thus their different traditional roles in society should be maintained. Other anti-feminists oppose women's entry into the workforce, political office, and the voting process, as well as the lessening of male authority in families. Writers such as, Lisa Lucile Owens and oppose some forms of feminism, though they identify as feminists. They argue, for example, that feminism often promotes and the elevation of women's interests above men's, and criticize radical feminist positions as harmful to both men and women.

And argue that the term 'anti-feminist' is used to silence academic debate about feminism. Lisa Lucile Owens argues that certain rights extended exclusively to women are patriarchal because they relieve women from exercising a crucial aspect of their moral agency.